During the Middle Ages, people in England were separated into three groups: nobles, clergy, and commoners. Nobles were hereditary members of the monarchy plus those granted nobility by the king or queen. The clergy were people of the cloth and commoners were folks like us.
Early kings had little to no standing army or police, so they depended on the support of powerful subjects within the realm and the clergy to ensure laws of the Crown were upheld.
William the Conqueror
Normandy is a region in Northern France. The Norman Invasion of England occurred in 1066. William of Normandy (later called, William the Conqueror) became king of England by defeating the existing king at the Battle of Hastings. He declared himself (and any future monarch) as the sole holder of land, but introduced a feudal system whereby certain subjects were bestowed nobility (through the title of baron) and granted rental use of land to profit from. He then sought the advice of these barons along with the clergy before making laws.
Magna Carta
In 1215, a group of rebel barons forced King John to sign the Magna Carta (Latin for “the great charter”), granting them some rights. It was the first time an English monarch had ever agreed to share power. In theory, this baron group became the first parliament. Some monarchs respected Magna Carta, others didn’t—so early parliaments were primarily seen as advisory committees.
Early Parliament
In 1341, parliament was divided into two houses: knights and elected members (burgesses) sat in the House of Commons, while clergy and appointed nobility sat in the House of Lords. The House of Lords was initially the stronger house but a gradual process of evolution (accelerated by uprisings) transferred political power first, from the Crown to the House of Lords, and then to the House of Commons.
Civil War
The English Civil War (1642-1651) was fought between the Parliamentarians (“Roundheads”) and the Royalists of King Charles I (called “Cavaliers”). The Parliamentarians won, executing King Charles and replacing him with a stronger parliament headed by Oliver Cromwell. This parliament lasted 10 years before people lost confidence and supported a counter-revolution, won by King Charles’s son, Charles II. Charles II eventually died and was succeeded by his brother, King James II. (That’s why the Cleveland Cavaliers called Lebron James, King James. They’re both Cavaliers—get it?)
Reformation
In challenge to papal authority and Catholic practices, Henry VIII along with Martin Luther in Germany and the French John Calvin in Switzerland, initiated the Protestant Reformation during the 1500s. For England, this meant the formation of the Church of England (called Anglican in Canada and Episcopalian in the US).
It’s often cited that Henry VIII’s motivation behind his part was to attain a divorce (thereby a male heir) but this event was much more significant. The Reformation greatly changed the practice of Christian religion and moved power and taxes away from Rome. Practical changes included the translation of the Bible (and church services) from Latin into the languages of the people and making the Bible widely available. The Reformation is also attributed with paving the way for modern day democracy because people became comfortable with opposing large institutions. (But really, isn’t that just British.)
Glorious Revolution
In 1688, parliamentarians assisted by the Dutch and William of Orange, defeated King James II in the Glorious Revolution. Never again would an English monarch rule with absolute power. This victory, along with the British Bill of Rights of 1689, established the basic tenet that parliament was supreme. The monarchy continued to exist but it became a constitutional monarchy (as opposed to an absolute monarchy) where its powers were defined and limited by law.
As an expression of gratitude, William of Orange and his wife, Mary, were inaugurated as the very first king and queen under this new system. They are commonly known as William and Mary.
Voting Rights
Initially, anyone wishing to be involved in politics had to be rich. Not only were MPs not paid (until 1911), they were expected to contribute generously to charities in their constituencies. And you had to be somewhat rich in order to vote. First, you had to own land, then it was extended to renters who were unencumbered by debts, and then you could qualify by having an education.
By the end of World War I, in 1918, over 40 percent of the armed forces still could not vote. This is when property restrictions were lifted on men, and women were given the right to vote under two conditions. They had to be over the age of 30 and meet certain property restrictions. This increased the electorate from 8 to 21 million. Then in 1928, gender restrictions were lifted on women and the electorate increased by another 15 million.
House of Lords
Seats in the House of Lords have always been appointed (not elected) and up until 1999, they were also hereditary. Throughout the years, power awarded to the House of Lords has been gradually diminished but it wasn’t until 1999 that Tony Blair’s government eliminated the ability for someone to attain their seat via family lineage.
Naval Supremacy
You can’t talk about the British without mentioning their navy. Their navy was not only Britain’s primary form of defense, it was their means of accessing a global economy (which led to the British Empire). The objective was to always ensure the size of the British fleet was at least equal to the sum of the world’s next two largest.
Their greatest sailor has to be Lord Nelson, who gained fame through the Battle of Trafalgar. This battle between the British (with 27 ships) and the French and Spanish (with 33 ships between them), saw the Franco-Spanish side lose 22 ships while the British Navy floated away with hardly a scratch.
British Empire
No realm, past or present, can match the grandeur of imperial Britain at its peak, for it once ruled a quarter of the world’s landmass and more than a quarter of its population—thrice the size of the Roman Empire, and far more than the Spanish Empire at full flush. It was observed in 1817, that “the sun never sets upon the Union Jack.”
By arms or by arrogance, Englishmen had persuaded darker races that Britain was the home of a race to dominate the world. Therefore they ruled mostly by consent. British confidence and then dominance was the result of their tremendous coal deposits (over one-third of the world’s reserves) and England’s role as birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Thus, Britain naturally became the world’s manufacturer, merchant, shipper, and banker—“the workshop of the world.”
The British Empire peaked for the hundred years between the early 1800s and early 1900s, and was dissolved after WWII (when the world decided to end imperialism).
Note: There is a great mini-series about the time of Henry the VIII called The Tudors.