History Archives - Page 2 of 2 - More Letters to the Corinthians

Imperialism

Ego and selfishness have blemished much of history. It’s characteristics like these that prompted emperors and kings to invade neighbouring lands and take them for their own. These acts of aggression were called imperialism.

Prior to World War I, established military thinking held the belief of Alcibiades, renowned Athenian statesman and general who said (c. 450 BC), “If we cease to rule others, we are in danger of being ruled ourselves.” His concept of “rule or be ruled” became the position of the world’s military class for two and a half millennia.

World War I

World War I started like most. Germany, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) were in alliance against Britain, France, and Russia. In 1912, Russia announced a buildup of national munitions. Germany’s response was to strike now while still able. (Initially, WWI was scheduled for 1912 but was delayed until the German navy could be expanded to contend with that of the British.)

Due to technological gains, twentieth century warring had changed. Men no longer drew swords and battled in fields. Industrialized guns, bombs, and machinery had been invented and were prevalent everywhere. Without getting into gory details, WWI lasted over four years and the casualties totaled 37 million (17 million deaths).

Americans

Two years into the war it became obvious the German alliance was going to win. The allies’ only hope was to convince their fellow democracy-believing buddies, the Americans, to join in. Then president, Woodrow Wilson, knew he’d have a difficult time convincing his electorate to offer up its money and sons. At the time, America was seen as isolationist and indifferent. Not only were they always an ocean away but Americans believed there was no end to these European wars.

The general notion of the US was to host an economy where all citizens could work their way into a good life. But they also believed in freedom. A freedom only democracy could provide. And since, at the time, only 12 countries had attained such freedom, they were bound to support their allies.

League of Nations

After the war, America championed the League of Nations, an intergovernmental organization with the mission to maintain world peace. Its primary goals included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent it had 58 members.

World War II

Though well intentioned, the League suffered many setbacks, including the US president’s failure to achieve ratification by his own senate. Italy disrespected the League by invading Ethiopia and, of course, Hitler wasn’t bothered by it at all.

The aggressions of World War II started in the late 1930s, with Britain and France declaring war on Germany in the fall of 1939. Again, the allies were being beaten badly and again, it was America to the rescue. But this time, US president Franklin Roosevelt had better ideas on how to curb imperialism.

Before entering the war, Roosevelt secretly met with British PM, Winston Churchill, off the coast of Newfoundland, to demand the dissolution of all existing empires following an allied victory (including Britain’s, which was by far the largest). This resolution (called the Atlantic Charter) came true with European countries divesting themselves of all foreign territories, including much of Africa and the Middle East.

United Nations

After WWII, humanity once again established a world organization to maintain world peace. The United Nations replaced the League of Nations with 51 original member states, and today has 193. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.

Some harbour criticism of this organization but in terms of obstructing imperialism it has achieved most of its goal. Yes, some countries have broken apart (e.g., Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia) but as of yet, no one has taken over the world.

Check out the movie Sergio on Netflix.

British History

During the Middle Ages, people in England were separated into three groups: nobles, clergy, and commoners. Nobles were hereditary members of the monarchy plus those granted nobility by the king or queen. The clergy were people of the cloth and commoners were folks like us.

Early kings had little to no standing army or police, so they depended on the support of powerful subjects within the realm and the clergy to ensure laws of the Crown were upheld.

William the Conqueror

Normandy is a region in Northern France. The Norman Invasion of England occurred in 1066. William of Normandy (later called, William the Conqueror) became king of England by defeating the existing king at the Battle of Hastings. He declared himself (and any future monarch) as the sole holder of land, but introduced a feudal system whereby certain subjects were bestowed nobility (through the title of baron) and granted rental use of land to profit from. He then sought the advice of these barons along with the clergy before making laws.

Magna Carta

In 1215, a group of rebel barons forced King John to sign the Magna Carta (Latin for “the great charter”), granting them some rights. It was the first time an English monarch had ever agreed to share power. In theory, this baron group became the first parliament. Some monarchs respected Magna Carta, others didn’t—so early parliaments were primarily seen as advisory committees.

Early Parliament

In 1341, parliament was divided into two houses: knights and elected members (burgesses) sat in the House of Commons, while clergy and appointed nobility sat in the House of Lords. The House of Lords was initially the stronger house but a gradual process of evolution (accelerated by uprisings) transferred political power first, from the Crown to the House of Lords, and then to the House of Commons.

Civil War

The English Civil War (1642-1651) was fought between the Parliamentarians (“Roundheads”) and the Royalists of King Charles I (called “Cavaliers”). The Parliamentarians won, executing King Charles and replacing him with a stronger parliament headed by Oliver Cromwell. This parliament lasted 10 years before people lost confidence and supported a counter-revolution, won by King Charles’s son, Charles II. Charles II eventually died and was succeeded by his brother, King James II. (That’s why the Cleveland Cavaliers called Lebron James, King James. They’re both Cavaliers—get it?)

Reformation

In challenge to papal authority and Catholic practices, Henry VIII along with Martin Luther in Germany and the French John Calvin in Switzerland, initiated the Protestant Reformation during the 1500s. For England, this meant the formation of the Church of England (called Anglican in Canada and Episcopalian in the US).

It’s often cited that Henry VIII’s motivation behind his part was to attain a divorce (thereby a male heir) but this event was much more significant. The Reformation greatly changed the practice of Christian religion and moved power and taxes away from Rome. Practical changes included the translation of the Bible (and church services) from Latin into the languages of the people and making the Bible widely available. The Reformation is also attributed with paving the way for modern day democracy because people became comfortable with opposing large institutions. (But really, isn’t that just British.)

Glorious Revolution

In 1688, parliamentarians assisted by the Dutch and William of Orange, defeated King James II in the Glorious Revolution. Never again would an English monarch rule with absolute power. This victory, along with the British Bill of Rights of 1689, established the basic tenet that parliament was supreme. The monarchy continued to exist but it became a constitutional monarchy (as opposed to an absolute monarchy) where its powers were defined and limited by law.

As an expression of gratitude, William of Orange and his wife, Mary, were inaugurated as the very first king and queen under this new system. They are commonly known as William and Mary.

Voting Rights

Initially, anyone wishing to be involved in politics had to be rich. Not only were MPs not paid (until 1911), they were expected to contribute generously to charities in their constituencies. And you had to be somewhat rich in order to vote. First, you had to own land, then it was extended to renters who were unencumbered by debts, and then you could qualify by having an education.

By the end of World War I, in 1918, over 40 percent of the armed forces still could not vote. This is when property restrictions were lifted on men, and women were given the right to vote under two conditions. They had to be over the age of 30 and meet certain property restrictions. This increased the electorate from 8 to 21 million. Then in 1928, gender restrictions were lifted on women and the electorate increased by another 15 million.

House of Lords

Seats in the House of Lords have always been appointed (not elected) and up until 1999, they were also hereditary. Throughout the years, power awarded to the House of Lords has been gradually diminished but it wasn’t until 1999 that Tony Blair’s government eliminated the ability for someone to attain their seat via family lineage.

Naval Supremacy

You can’t talk about the British without mentioning their navy. Their navy was not only Britain’s primary form of defense, it was their means of accessing a global economy (which led to the British Empire). The objective was to always ensure the size of the British fleet was at least equal to the sum of the world’s next two largest.

Their greatest sailor has to be Lord Nelson, who gained fame through the Battle of Trafalgar. This battle between the British (with 27 ships) and the French and Spanish (with 33 ships between them), saw the Franco-Spanish side lose 22 ships while the British Navy floated away with hardly a scratch.

British Empire

No realm, past or present, can match the grandeur of imperial Britain at its peak, for it once ruled a quarter of the world’s landmass and more than a quarter of its population—thrice the size of the Roman Empire, and far more than the Spanish Empire at full flush. It was observed in 1817, that “the sun never sets upon the Union Jack.”

By arms or by arrogance, Englishmen had persuaded darker races that Britain was the home of a race to dominate the world. Therefore they ruled mostly by consent. British confidence and then dominance was the result of their tremendous coal deposits (over one-third of the world’s reserves) and England’s role as birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Thus, Britain naturally became the world’s manufacturer, merchant, shipper, and banker—“the workshop of the world.”

The British Empire peaked for the hundred years between the early 1800s and early 1900s, and was dissolved after WWII (when the world decided to end imperialism).

Note: There is a great mini-series about the time of Henry the VIII called The Tudors.

Irish Nationalism

The Irish are typically known for drinking beer, funny tasting stew, and inventing St. Patrick’s Day, but these folks also have a long and vivid history. One that’s applicable to the world. Today, the island is divided into two parts: the Republic of Ireland (its own country) and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. The island’s population is 6.4 million—4.6 million live in the Republic and 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.

Early History

The island was initially inhabited by leprechauns who ran around speaking Gaelic. In 1171, the English (with the backing of the Pope) invaded and began their rule. Ireland would remain separate, but regional kings and bishops had to report to England. Back then everyone was Catholic but in the 1500s, under Henry the VIII’s Protestant Reformation, England changed its religion to Anglican (which wasn’t an easy process).

Later in the 1500s, the Irish tried to rebel. The rebellion was put down but four things happened:

The King of England became the King of Ireland.
England increased its involvement by colonizing the island with thousands of settlers (mostly in the north-east corner).
England tried to impose upon the Irish their new Anglican religion.
A class-structure was formed to favour Protestants.

This religious-conversion thing didn’t go well and most Irish remained Catholic, but they were punished for keeping their faith. Along with economic misfortunes, England denied Catholics voting rights or positions within the Irish Parliament (though they represented 85% of the population).

1800s

Because of this mistreatment, there were many more uprisings over the centuries (though none successful). In the 1800s, three important things happened:

The Irish Parliament was abolished and Ireland became part of Britain (1801). Irish voters would now send representatives to the British parliament in London.
The Reform Act of 1832 cancelled all voter discrimination against Catholics.
The Irish Parliamentary Party was formed (1882) to promote Irish Nationalism or Home Rule (kind of like Canada’s Bloc Quebecois).

Home Rule

The Home Rule Movement produced four failed attempts between 1886 and 1920. The issue was always between Catholic Nationalists, who wanted the whole island, and Protestant Northerners, who felt all of Ireland should remain within the UK.

Sein Fein (Gaelic for “ourselves”), a political party dedicated to the establishment of an Irish Republic, formed in 1907. They eventually replaced the Irish Parliamentary Party and often supported the Irish Republican Army (IRA), who formed in 1913 to wage a guerrilla campaign against British rule in Ireland.

Ulster—the nine counties around Belfast, in Northern Ireland—was largely populated by Protestants, descendants of Scots who had settled there in the early 1600s. Under Home Rule, the entire island would be ruled by Dublin. Inevitably, Catholics from southern Ireland would dominate it. Before accepting any such thing, Ulstermen swore they’d die fighting. (So it was a sticky situation.)

In 1920, after Irish soldiers had died valiantly in WWI, Irish patience was up. Violence became the order of the day and something had to be done. The liberal government assigned the issue to Secretary of State for the Colonies, Winston Churchill. Churchill’s initial reaction was to counter IRA violence with British soldiers (the “tans”) but this act was ineffective. He then invited leaders of the Irish National Movement to negotiate.

Michael Collins

Revolutionary leader and IRA member, Michael Collins, went to London along with Sein Fein founder, Arthur Griffith. Collins and Churchill got along exceptionally well—drinking and singing until late into the morning. Churchill’s offer, which became known as the Anglo-Irish Agreement (1922), named southern Ireland the Irish Free State and granted it dominion status like that of Canada. Northerners would have the right to join the dominion or remain within Britain. And if they chose the latter, which everyone knew they would, Britain would defend them. Churchill’s opinion was that northern Ireland may one day rejoin with the south, but that time wasn’t now.

Collins, realizing he’d probably signed his own death papers, accepted the deal as being the best he could do. Upon his return, Nationalists split into two groups: those who supported the agreement as a first step towards total Irish independence and those who were against it. And though the agreement was passed by voters almost three-to-one, an Irish Civil War erupted. Anti-agreement forces were not content with only five-sixths of the island tied to British association and saw Collin’s agreement as a sell-out. Two months later, Michael Collins was murdered (at the age of 32). Among his last words were, “Tell Winston we couldn’t have done it without him.”

The Irish Civil War lasted a year. It was won by the Free State forces, which were heavily armed by the British government. In 1937, the Free State adopted its own constitution, and then in 1949 left the British Commonwealth completely to become what it is today—the Republic of Ireland.

Troubles

Northern Ireland continued to have troubles. Discrimination against northern Catholics (one-third of the population) in jobs and housing, in addition to their total exclusion from political power, led to a civil rights movement in the late 1960s similar to that led by Martin Luther King in the United States. Both sides turned to violence—the military forces of the northern Protestants against the northern Catholics’ IRA.

Because of the troubles, Northern Ireland was deemed incapable of ruling itself and came under direct rule by Britain for over 27 years (1972-1999). All parties eventually agreed to a ceasefire in 1998, through the Good Friday Agreement, after more than 3,500 deaths.

This agreement restored self-government to Northern Ireland through a number of changes and stipulates that Northern Ireland will remain part of the UK until a majority of the people of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland wish otherwise. Should that happen, then the British and Irish governments are under a binding obligation to implement that choice. This peace process has suffered setbacks since it’s inception but a changing demographic plus the loosening of people’s association with religion leaves hope for the future.

Note: the flag of Ireland, introduced in the mid-19th century, is a tricolour of green, white, and orange. Green for Roman Catholics, orange for Protestants, and white for the desired peace between them.

American History

Many of us walk around in a fog when it comes to American terms and historical references. The media keeps throwing them at us like we’re supposed to know this stuff. So let’s lift some of the mist. The following is a brief synopsis of American history. If you read these pages and watch a few movies, you’ll have it.

Independence

America was initially inhabited by natives, just like Canada, Mexico, and South America. The Mayflower arrived in 1620, around the time of the first African slaves. 41 male passengers from the Mayflower signed an agreement that formed the basis of the colony’s first government. By 1650, there were 50,000 colonial inhabitants.

The American Revolution (the War of Independence) between the British and the 13 colonies (which became the original 13 states) started in 1775 and ended in 1781, when British General Cornwall surrendered to General George Washington. Listed causes of the war include Britain’s imposition of a tax on the colony, and limitations on its commerce and freedoms.

US soldiers were essentially a citizen’s militia (not a formally trained army). Remember, it had been 150 years since the Mayflower landed—the people fighting for America were born there. So it was probably time to spill a little tea and host an uprising.

The 13 colonies, each with their own government, came together (during the war) to sign the Declaration of Independence, primarily written by Virginia representative, Thomas Jefferson. The declaration was signed in 1776, in Philadelphia. It declared the United States to be a free and independent country. It wasn’t until 1783, two years after the war had ended, that Britain formally acknowledged the US. The population at the time was approx. 3 million.

The Constitution

In 1787, the 13 states signed the US Constitution. The US Constitution is the oldest of its kind and originally had seven articles. It was amended in 1791 with ten more articles, commonly known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments include freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and the right of people to petition their government (the first amendment), plus the right to bear arms (the second amendment).

In total, the constitution has 27 amendments. The 13^th amendment, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery. Five years later, the 15^th amendment gave people of any race or colour the right to vote. The 16th amendment, ratified in 1913, permitted the government to tax income. The 18th and 19th amendments, both passed in 1920, prohibited alcohol and gave women the right to vote. The 18th amendment (prohibition) was then later repealed in 1933 (by the 21st amendment). The 26th amendment, passed in 1971, lowered the voting age to 18 from 21.

Acquisitions

In 1803, the United States paid Napoleon France $15 million for the Louisiana Territory (commonly known as the Louisiana Purchase). This area is huge and much bigger than the state of Louisiana. It’s essentially what America today calls the mid-west. Part, or all, of what became 15 states were purchased including Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, and Montana. As a result, the US nearly doubled its size.

In 1812, the US declared war on Britain over British interference with American maritime shipping and westward expansion. The war lasted just over 2 years. The United States suffered many costly defeats at the hands of the British, Canadian, and Native American troops, including the burning of the nation’s capital. But American troops were able to repulse British invasions in New York, Baltimore, and New Orleans. In the end, the British promised to leave Canada’s borders unchanged.

In 1819, Spain ceded Florida to the United States. In 1836, Texas declared its independence from Mexico. It was then annexed by the US, nine years later (and tons of Mexicans still live there). In 1846, the Oregon Treaty fixed the Canadian border at the 49th parallel. Also in 1846, the US declared war on Mexico. It lasted 2 years. The outcome resulted in the US paying $15 million for the area now known as California, Nevada, Utah, most of New Mexico and Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The rest of New Mexico and Arizona were purchased for an additional $10 million in 1853.

The US acquired Alaska from Russia, in 1867, for $7.2 million dollars.

Slavery

The battle over slavery was a huge deal in US history. During the mid-1800s there were slave states (like, South Carolina) and free states (like, California). Abraham Lincoln came into prominence through a series of debates held with Illinois state senate rival, Steven Douglas. When Lincoln was elected president, in 1860, on a platform of emancipation (the abolishment of slavery), 11 states succeeded from the Union to form the Confederacy.

The Civil War, 1861-65, was won by the Union (the north) led by Lincoln and all 11 confederate states rejoined by 1870. During the Civil War, President Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg address. The last act of the war saw the surrender of General Robert E. Lee to General Ulysses S. Grant. During the war, southerners referred to Union soldiers as Yankees (and southern soldiers were called rebels).

President Lincoln was reelected in 1864 and assassinated by John Wilkes Booth within his first year. 1865 is also the year that brought the 13th amendment to abolish slavery. The 15th amendment, passed in 1870, gave blacks the right to vote.

Jim Crow Laws

In 1898, the Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation was constitutional, paving the way for the repressive Jim Crow laws in the South. Jim Crow laws legalized discrimination and stayed in effect until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The March on Washington, by over 200,000 people, in 1963 (highlighted by Rev. Martin Luther King’s speech, “I Have a Dream”) dramatized the movement, which officially ended with the Civil Rights Act in 1964.

The New Deal

Suffering from the effects of the great depression, in 1935, President Franklin Roosevelt brought in the New Deal. It included Unemployment Insurance, bargaining rights for labour, CDIC deposit insurance, regulations for the stock market, and the Social Security Act, which introduced public pensions (Canada didn’t bring in public pensions until 1965).

Three years later, Roosevelt brought in the Fair Labor Standards Act, which introduced the first minimum wage, the forty-hour work week, time-and-a-half for overtime, and prohibited child labor. These acts permanently changed the federal government’s relationship to the US populace.

Closing

If you’d like more details on topics like the battles of Bunker Hill and Valley Forge, France’s involvement in the War of Independence (through its navy), or the land seized by the British from the Dutch and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York, check Wikipedia or other sources on the web.

HBO has a wonderful seven-part mini-series called, John Adams, co-produced by Tom Hanks. It’s named after one of the founding fathers and America’s second president. It brings to life characters like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin. There is also a movie called, Lincoln, starring Daniel Day Lewis; C-SPAN has produced a reenactment of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates; and, The Roosevelts: An Intimate History, is a seven-part documentary, released in 2014, that covers the lives of Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt (his cousin), and Eleanor Roosevelt (the influential first lady).